Introduction Mpox (formerly monkeypox) has driven two global health emergencies since 2022. Pet owners understandably ask whether their dog or cat is at risk. The honest, up-to-date answer is more reassuring and more interesting than the early headlines suggested. Structural anatomy of the monkeypox (MPXV) virion. Labelled diagram of the monkeypox virus structure showing surface tubles, outer envelope, lateral bodies, pallisade layer, core membrane, core fibrils, and core nuc

A small, stealthy bacterium that lives only inside the cells of a cat’s conjunctiva is one of the most common — and most treatable — causes of persistent eye disease "flu" in kittens. Here is what every owner and clinician should know. Few presentations in feline practice are as familiar – or as frequently misread – as the young cat with a weepy, half-closed, reddened eye. Owners often assume their kitten has been scratched or has “something in the eye". In a large proportion

Anatomic arrangement of the liver lobes and extrahepatic biliary tract. A, Diaphragmatic aspect of the liver. B, Visceral aspect of the liver. C, Liver lobes, gallbladder, and hepatic ducts, visceral aspect. (From Evans HE: The digestive apparatus and abdomen. In Evans HE, de Lahunta A: Miller’s anatomy of the dog, ed 4, St Louis, 2013, Saunders/Elsevier.) Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a brain disturbance caused by liver dysfunction. When the liver can no longer clear toxins

Lactulose is one of the main medicines used to manage hepatic encephalopathy (HE). It is a special sugar the body cannot digest, so it travels intact to the colon — and there it does something clever. It changes the chemistry of the gut so that ammonia, the main toxin behind HE, gets trapped inside the bowel and carried out in the stool instead of being absorbed into the blood and reaching the brain. How it works, step by step: Lactulose enters the colon. Given by mouth, it p

Introduction For a congenital portosystemic shunt — the most common cause of hepatic encephalopathy in young dogs and cats — the definitive treatment is surgery to correct the abnormal vessel. The goal is to close the shunt so that blood from the gut once again flows through the liver to be detoxified, instead of bypassing it. Crucially, the shunt is closed gradually rather than all at once. Before surgery: Portal blood bypasses the liver through the shunt vessel Ammonia and

What Is Hepatic Encephalopathy? Anatomic arrangement of the liver lobes and extrahepatic biliary tract. A, Diaphragmatic aspect of the liver. B, Visceral aspect of the liver. C, Liver lobes, gallbladder, and hepatic ducts, visceral aspect. (From Evans HE: The digestive apparatus and abdomen. In Evans HE, de Lahunta A: Miller’s anatomy of the dog, ed 4, St Louis, 2013, Saunders/Elsevier.) Consider your pet’s liver as the body’s main chemical processing plant — it handles all s

Introduction Figure I: Kidney illustration Renal encephalopathy, also known as uraemic encephalopathy (UE), is a severe, life-threatening metabolic neurological disorder caused by advanced renal (kidney) failure. It occurs when the kidneys fail to filter out organic wastes, leading to an accumulation of uraemic toxins (nitrogenous toxins) in the blood and central nervous system (CNS). Besides, it also causes electrolyte imbalances, leading to metabolic acidosis, and often sys

What is triage? "Triage" is defined by the French term "trier", which means "to sort" or "choose". It is the process of ranking the urgency of a patient's care based on the severity of their condition. When multiple emergencies occur at once, it enables speedy inspection of each patient and classification of the patients based on how urgently their injuries need to be treated. The most urgent cases have historically involved issues with the circulatory, respiratory, or nervou

Animal triage: Every second counts. Structured animal triage ensures the right patient gets the right care at the right time. A trauma score is a numerical characterisation of the injuries sustained by a patient from a traumatic incident. It provides an objective assessment of the patient’s clinical status. The animal triage trauma (ATT) score was developed to stratify the veterinary trauma population by injury severity. The ATT score was designed to be a quick, easy, and rea

Introduction Mango worm Mango worms cause a condition called cutaneous myiasis in dogs. In tropical areas like Kenya, they are a common problem for dogs. The fly larvae infest and develop within the host's skin (Scholl et al., 2019). This condition is not only uncomfortable and painful for dogs but also represents a significant veterinary and public health concern, as it can occasionally affect humans (Jallow et al., 2024). Understanding the causes, recognising early signs, a

Occasionally, dogs become fractious during handling, especially when stressed, fearful, or in pain. Proper restraint is therefore essential to prevent injury to both the handler and the animal. The use of appropriate handling techniques, combined with protective clothing such as sturdy shoes, significantly reduces the risk of injury (Overall, 2013). Minimising exposure to sudden environmental changes and gradually acclimatising dogs to new stimuli is equally important, as abr

A dog showing signs of separation anxiety by looking out the window Understanding Separation Anxiety in Dogs: Causes, Symptoms, and Solutions Separation anxiety is a serious condition affecting many dogs. It is a maladaptive behavioural syndrome in which a dog experiences intense stress or fear when separated from its owner or primary caregiver. This disorder leads to panic-like reactions during real or perceived separations (Overall, 2013). It is not merely a sign of disobed

What is halitosis? Halitosis , or bad breath , is a condition in which exhaled air has an unpleasant or offensive odour (odiferous breath). Other terms used to define halitosis include 'foetor oris', 'foetor ex oris' , and 'oral malodour' . It is an unpleasant odour emanating from the oral cavity, upper respiratory tract, or gastrointestinal system (Barko, 2020). Oral malodour is among the most common complaints presented in companion animal practice and is a clinically relev

Introduction The Skin Anatomy Cellulitis is an acute bacterial infection of the deep dermis and subcutaneous tissue in both humans and companion animals. It is a painful, spreading inflammation of the tissues under the skin (the subcutis). The most common causative agents in humans are Streptococcus species and Staphylococcus aureus, while in pets, the most frequent species is Staphylococcus pseudointermedius , which is rarely pathogenic to humans (Bannoehr & Guardabassi,

''Euthanasia'' , derived from the Greek words ' eu' (good) and 'thanatos' (death) , refers to the act of inducing a painless death to relieve suffering. In veterinary medicine, humane euthanasia of companion animals is carried out to end their lives in a controlled, painless, and compassionate manner when continued life entails unnecessary suffering due to terminal disease, severe injury, or irreversible decline in quality of life (Yeates, 2010). Reasons for Euthanasia Te

Introduction In today's world, protecting our beloved furry companions is paramount. As pet owners and pet caretakers, we strive to provide them with the best care possible, ensuring their health and wellness are always a top priority. While reactive care is crucial, preventive measures are equally—if not more—important. That's where preventive care plans for your dogs and cats come into play. Preventive care for pets involves a proactive approach to maintaining their health

What is Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)? Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC) is a malignant tumour arising from the squamous epithelium—the flat, thin cells that cover the skin and line body cavities (e.g., the oral cavity and nasal planum) and form areas such as paw pads, nail beds, ears , and eyelids. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is one of the most common malignant tumours in cats. It is locally aggressive, often destructive, and, in advanced cases, life-threatening (Murphy, 2013

Introduction Canine spondylosis, or spondylosis deformans , is a common chronic degenerative condition affecting the spines of aging dogs, leading to pain and mobility issues. As a dog owner, understanding spondylosis is essential for effective prevention and management. Studies indicate that nearly 70% of older dogs exhibit some signs of spinal degeneration, making awareness crucial for enhancing their well-being. Although it often develops without noticeable symptoms, it

An illustration of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of a dog Paralytic ileus, also referred to as functional or adynamic ileus, is a...

1. Housing & Environment Hutch cage Rabbits require housing that supports both physical health and psychological well-being. Spacious,...